Parental Alienation Syndrome by Monika

Despite vast educational efforts made in favor of positive co-parenting, many divorces fail to end on favorable terms. The stanch reality is that post-divorce conflicts continue for years after a divorce is finalized, with children embattled in the middle. Establishing and successfully exercising affective and informed methods to aid this next generation is undoubtedly, the single most important issue facing the counseling profession. As counselors, we must move beyond the simple acknowledgment of these conflicts.

Currently, the court system favors ill-fated co-parenting in many cases. Arguably, there are many divorced couples capable of effectively co-parenting. Unfortunately, many divorces involve relentless long-term parental conflict leading to psychological distress. Without therapeutic interventions, the children may succumb to life-long damaging effects. Adults are also not immune and may display various idiosyncratic manifestations of unresolved anger and hurt from prolonged conflicts.
The most disheartening outcome, of an unamicable divorce, is the possibility that the parent-child relationship may become temporarily or permanently severed. This adverse phenomenon is known as Parental Alienation Syndrome (PAS). The term was coined by Gardner (1985), who defined PAS as…a disorder that arises primarily in the context of child custody disputes. Its primary manifestation is the child’s campaign of denigration against a good, loving parent, a campaign that has no justification. It results from the combination of a programming (brainwashing) parent’s indoctrinations and the child’s own contributions to the vilification of the target parent. When true parental abuse and or neglect is present the child’s animosity may be justified, and so the Parental Alienation Syndrome diagnosis is not applicable” (p. 192 ¶ 3).

PAS can be mild, in which visitation with a child is difficult, or it may become severe, in which the child refuses to acknowledge one parent, eventually severing the relationship. Regrettably, counselors are divided over the existence of PAS. Part of the ongoing resistance, as noted by Baker (2006), may be because “skeptics hold the belief that a parent must have done something to warrant their child’s rejection and / or the other parent’s animosity” (p. 192 ¶ 3).With PAS, alienation is not based on the alienated parent’s actions. According to Warshak (2001), some parents doubt their ability to hold onto their children’s love. He notes that they are insecure and “to cope with their insecurity they try to drive a wedge between the children and the other parent” (p. 94). It is vital to remember the negative context that often comes with divorce. The alienating parent preys upon the fact that younger children can be credulous and older children can be lured with material gifts. It should also be considered, that the parent that is perpetuating the alienation has something to gain: an ongoing relationship with an ex-spouse for instance.

The acknowledgement and support of PAS research should be on the counseling forefront for numerous reasons. The failure to recognize the validity of PAS impedes the ability to effectively identify and work with affected children. Consequently, some counselors fail to recognize the legitimacy of a parent’s claim that an ex-spouse has “turned their child against them”. As a result, client’s anxieties are misunderstood and / or improperly diagnosed. In addition, many states court-order high conflict divorces into counseling; while counselors may not agree about the existence of PAS, most would acknowledge the existence of “poor mouthing”. Certainly, counselors recognize that poor mouthing the other parent to innocent children does not lead to optimal mental health, nor does it contribute to the development or safeguarding of positive parental relationships. Successful counselors must be equipped to deal with the intense emotions stemming from these issues.

Lastly, losing a child to PAS is psychologically devastating. Gardner (2002) considers…losing a child because of PAS to be more painful and psychologically devastating than the death of a child. A child’s death is final and there is absolutely no hope for reconciliation. Most bereaved parents ultimately resign themselves to this painful reality (p. 201 ¶ 2). With PAS, the post-divorce adjustment period may never end if these parents are repeatedly subjected to a roller coaster of emotional distress and injustice. As stated by Baker (2006), “The ongoing debate among professionals regarding the existence of PAS can contribute to the victimization of targeted parents who are not receiving the support from the legal and mental health communities that they desperately need” (p. 202 ¶ 1). If as counselors we fail to recognize the existence of PAS, then what profession should the innocent turn to, in order to express this justified grief?

References
Baker, A. (2006). The power of stories / stories about power: Why therapists and clients should read stories about the parental alienation syndrome. The American Journal of Family Therapy, 34 (191-203).
Gardner, R. (2002). Denial of the parental alienation syndrome also harms women. The American Journal of Family Therapy, 30 (191-202).
Warshak, R. (2001). Divorce Poison. New York, NY: HarperCollins Publishers Inc.

Parental Alienation: Refined, Reformulated & Rationalized: You Might Be An Average, Okay Normal Parent by Monika

It is an unfortunate time we are in when mental abuse of children remains disregarded. Parental Alienation has been described in the literature for at least 60 years (Bernet, 2008). I hope that for the sake of children all over the world, another 60 years will not pass.  The media has distorted Parental Alienation; extremist groups have made attempts to divide the issue into gender wars. I agree with Fidler & Bala (2010), “…the feminist advocates who, in the name of helping women, deny that alienation exists, do a disservice to not only the many mothers who are unjustifiably alienated from their children, and often by abusive men, but more importantly do a disservice to the children.”Probably the nastiest misrepresentations are those that relate Parental Alienation solely to the person who coined the term, Dr. Gardner. 


It is regrettable that many cannot read past Gardner’s finding during the tender year’s presumption and his studies of high-conflict custody cases. It is also fateful that there is not a consensus among professionals; nevertheless, I concur with Bernet (2008) that the proposal should not be rejected due to a lack of consensus. He notes that, “the history of psychology and psychiatry is full of disagreements over causation.” Luckily, there is an agreement that parent-child alienation is a common and serious problem for some [italics added] separating parents (Jaffe, Ashbourne, & Mamo, 2010). This group designated as “some”, is the group I would clearly identify as high conflict. According the Center for Divorce Education, this group of divorcing parents consists of 10%. These authors also point out, that the current debate is centered on extreme cases. Commons sense tells us these extreme cases merit attention. It seems reasonable that Parental Alienation is considered “high-conflict.” I am not aware personally, or in literature reviews, of divorced couples that co-parent affectionately while simultaneously slandering each other in the presence of their children.

Out of a response to criticism, Parental Alienation has been refined, reformulated, and at times, rationalized. I am appreciative that professionals in the field are working on this dreadful issue. Nevertheless, in light of all the connotations, an extensive review of the literature reveals that Parental Alienation has been conceptualized similarly by different researchers. Although, as a caveat, most do not openly acknowledge their findings are analogous to Gardner’s. Parental Alienation, as described by Wallerstein & Kelly (1976), is when a child living with one parent who irrationally rejects the other parent and refuses to visit or have contact with that other parent .Explanations come back to Gardner’s original definition of Parental Alienation Syndrome. Gardner in 1985 discussed this high-conflict group and noted, “It is the child’s campaign of denigration against a parent, a campaign that has no justification. It results from the combination of a programming parent’s indoctrination and the child’s own contribution to the vilification of the target parent.”  And here is where the problem begins. All of these conceptualizations’ entail what many consider as black and white thinking. 


Is irrational alienation possible? Is it probable for one parent to trigger a campaign against an ex-spouse and align his or her child? According to Fidler and Bala (2010)”this is not an either/or proposition; there are abused children and there are alienated children.” The authors additionally note that to portray rejected parents as victims is to resist “scrutiny of the conduct of these parents.” Clearly, I agree there are alienated children and abused children. And, I suggest, that both issues  should be taken very seriously. These issues however are separate considerations. True abuse and neglect should be ruled out before giving a diagnosis of parental alienation disorder. Gardner and other researches include criteria for differentiating between Parental Alienation and Bona Fide abuse-neglect. It seems likely that experts can differentiate between abuse and Parental Alienation. “Gardner’s definition is clear enough for psychologists to reliably diagnose PAS from case examples” (Rueda, 2004). It also is possible that one parent can develop animosity because of the input from one parent. Without a doubt, …”[sic] it is common for each parent to express negative sentiments about the other parent…” (Fidler & Bala, 2010). However, I think it is possible that one parent can vent to a friend, counselor, or another adult while the alienating parent “expresses negative sentiments about the other parent to the child.” Who do you vent to?


Clearly, educational efforts are needed as some parents do not know that voicing frustrations to their child may not be in their best interests. On the other hand, there are actually parents who appreciate that disparaging remarks about an ex-spouse is not a good idea. But, we ponder, let us get the bottom of our ex-spouses pain, “The real issue which needs to be addressed is the conflict between the parents that prevents the children from enjoying a meaningful relationship with each of their parents post separation” (Jaffe, Ashbourne, & Mamo, 2010). I do not know about the reader, but to get to the bottom of my ex-spouses anger, I would have had to stay married.   Some parents cannot move on past the pain of a divorce, “It is the embattled parent, often the one who opposes the divorce in the first place, who initiates and fuels the alignment (Wallerstein & Kelly, 1980). What about you, do you as a rejected parent have serious parenting deficits? No worries, you may be average with regular parenting faults, similar to the married population that regularly making parenting mistakes.


Is it not possible that the parent who opposes the divorce could start a campaign of denigration? I know when I initiated my divorce, I was told, “if you leave I will make your life a living hell.”  It is also an immense error to assume that all rejected parents cannot be victims. To think that all rejected parents must have played a role, renders that rejected parents get what they deserve. (Warshak, 2003).  Intent or no intent, some parents spew venomous words and poison the mind of his or her child. I agree that some parents could benefit from parenting educational programs that teaches about children’s developmental stages, birth order, gender identification and the adverse outcome of badmouthing. As a caveat; one has to care. Kelly (2010) points out, favored parents often are noncompliant with court orders. What about your ex-spouse, does he or she comply with court orders? Should valuable workshops that offer services to severely alienated children offer programs for the favored parent? According to Warshak & Otis (2010), favored parents often deny they have a problem [sic] and are unmotivated to change. Years ago after my divorce, I suggested joint counseling, but the suggestion was ridiculed.  What about your ex-spouse? Do they want [italics added] to change?


Do not be surprised if you ex-spouse does not change nor desire to change. A shrewd college professor recently reminded me, of the old adage; leopards do not change their spots. Findings indicate this may be true. As noted by Jaffe et al. (2010), “a minority of parents who suffer from personality and mental disorders may ignore the court and spend their waking hours finding ways to exhaust the other parent emotionally and financially.”  If you are a target parent hope remains. Some research indicates that being an adequate loving parent might be good enough. It may be that rejected parents simply have a difficult ex-spouse. And do not worry; you may also be psychologically healthy (although, getting a little mad at this point is understandable). Contrary to what might easily be assumed by professionals, findings by Hedrick & Dunne, (1994) suggest that PAS does not necessarily signify dysfunction in the rejected parent.  Gordon, Stoffey & Bottinelli (2008) also had comparable findings. They noted that target parents were similar in dynamics to an “average parent”. Target parents,   if you find yourself distressed by your children refusing visitation, sudden hatred, or reporting ideas and notions beyond their years; you may be normal.


There is power in hope; and in knowing you are not alone.  “We consider Parental Alienation Syndrome as a childhood disorder caused by an alienating parent…” (Gordon et. al). Lastly, the magnification of this problem is realized, “if a child begins to develop racial hatred, many reasonable people would consider this a problem worthy of attention. When children suffer from irrational anxieties that interfere with functioning we do not ignore the suffering with the hope that eventually the fears will be overcome” (Warshak, 2003). Once I was reminded that hatred by a child towards one parent is similar to prejudice, and that parental alienation is a social problem.   Divorce is a social problem; creating and instilling fear in the hearts and minds of innocent children and turning them against a once-loved parent is pathological. Which lens do you wear? As I recall, not all social problems resolve without intervention. And please, do not think silence is always golden. Nor is it helpful to count on your case of Parental Alienation resolving by the time your child turns 18; this may not be the case. The fact is, some social problems are internalized [italics added] and subsequently develop into disorders. Without recognition and intervention, Parental Alienation will adversely affect generations to come.

Methods of Emotional Manipulation: Understanding Parental Alienation using Behaviorism by Monika

Parental alienation is an insidious plan.  The plan  is not necessarily well-thought out. An un-happy ex-spouse does not jot down verbal snares for future use. On the contrary, the plan is primal. The plan is one that feeds and fills a wounded adult. Sorry to say but the plan works.

Psychology terms may benefit when it come to understanding Parental Alienation (PA). The first term is positive reinforcement. Positive reinforcement works. Parents use positive reinforcement to increase the frequency of   desired behaviors. The reinforcement may be gifts, stickers, recognition, or accolades. In cases of PA, the manipulative parent may buy the child a toy each time the kid reports happenings during the other parent’s visitation time. The kid will learn to report the events of the other parent’s life.  A manipulative parent will use this as part of his or her plan. So, when asked, does (dad or mom) say bad things? The child’s answer is no.

The second term is known as negative reinforcement.  This method works by compliance and exhaustion. Let’s say a kid calls the non-custodial parent every night before bed.  However, the parent feels threatened and rants about 30 minutes before the call is made. The out of control parent cannot tolerate frustration. Consequently, they resort to a nightly ritual of yelling, screaming and the use of derogatory terms .The parent may additionally threaten the kid. Obviously the kid would like to avoid the aversive conditions. One can conclude that the kid will stop calling. In this case, the kid desires the parent to cease child-like tantrums.


The third is partial reinforcement. If positive reinforcement is consistent, the behavior and subsequent rewards will remain. On the contrary, partial reinforcement is unpredictable. This may be maddening for parents that demand loyalty. It is akin to a drug user needing a fix. Let’s say a parent bought a new video game every time the child reported (mom or dads) new dating status. But wait, the child is getting older. The kid has a new set of friends and moved into adolescence. At times the kid will report events and other times they will not. The parent cannot predict if they get to know the happenings of his or her ex-spouses life. Out of desperation and the requirement for an emotional fix, the parent behaves in a compulsive manner. The parent wants to get back on track with a steady stream of reports from parental spying. The parent craves consistency.

Next is punishment the difference is in the timing. In negative reinforcement dad (or mom) starts yelling before the kid leaves for the weekend or vacation. Punishment can manifest in many forms. The worst may sound something like this, “if you go visit on Wednesday night, then we are moving five states away.” Punishment is a consequence of a behavior that the favored parent refuses to tolerate. In PA the word behavior should be replaced with love. That is, the favored parent cannot have the kid loving the other parent. Consequently, the kid will become fearful and may refuse to go. They reason, at their young age, that it is better to refuse visitation than to move five states away. Fear itself becomes reinforcing.


Last but not least: traumatic learning. In this case the kid will adopt a response style of fear and avoidance. There are many methods the parent may employ. Regardless of the means, it is enough to scare the kid for life. It may alienate the child or lead to a severed relationship. As just one example, the kid that arrives home happy from a weekend at dads may not be met with a pleasant smile. Instead, the child may come home to a parent screaming what a sorry no good nothing of a parent the child’s father has been. Worse yet, the parent rant, raves, and sobs. They will not stop; the parent goes on ranting about adult matters, such as affairs, and personal faults. The outcome is an alienated child. Parental Alienation is frequently associated with a plan. While the plan may not always have a lot of forethought, it provides covert gains. The gains are a quick fix to deep-rooted issues, pigeonholing kids into a life without one parent.

Parental Alienation Resources

Association of Family and Conciliation Courts (AFCC) Task Force on Parenting Coordination. (2006). Guidelines for parenting coordination. Family Court Review,44, 164–181.

Austin, Jr., R. B. (2006). PAS as a child against self. In R. A. Gardner, S. R. Sauber, & D. Lorandos (Eds.), The international handbook of parental alienation syndrome, conceptual, clinical and legal considerations (pp. 56–64). Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.

Baker, A. J. L. (2005). The long-term effects of parental alienation on adult children: A qualitative research study. American Journal of Family Therapy, 33(4), 289–302.

Baker, A. J. L. (2005). Parent alienation strategies: A qualitative study of adults who experienced parental alienation as a child. American Journal of Forensic Psychology, 23(4), 41–63.

Baker, A. J. L. (2006). The power of stories/stories about power: Why therapists and clients should read stories about the parental alienation syndrome. American Journal of Family Therapy, 34(3), 191–203.

Baker, A. J. L. (2006). Patterns of parental alienation syndrome: A qualitative study of adults who were alienated from a parent as a child. American Journal of Family Therapy, 34(1), 63–78.

Baker, A. J. L. (2007). Knowledge and attitudes about the parental alienation syndrome: A survey of custody evaluators. American Journal of Family Therapy, 35(1), 1–19.

Baker, A. J. L. (2007). Adult children of parental alienation syndrome: Breaking the ties that bind. New York: W. W. Norton & Co. Baker, A. J. L. (2010). Adult recall of parental alienation in a community sample: Prevalence and associations with psychological maltreatment. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 51(1), 16–35.

Baker, A. J. L., & Andre, K. (2008). Working with alienated children and their targeted parents. Annals of the American Psychotherapy Association, 11(2), 10–17.

Baker, A. J. L., & Darnall, D. (2006). Behaviors and strategies employed in parental alienation: A survey of parental experiences. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 45(1–2), 97–124.

Baker, A. J. L., & Darnall, D. (2007). A construct study of the eight symptoms of severe parental alienation syndrome: A survey of parental experiences. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 47(1–2), 55–75.

Baldwin, A., & Tabb, M. (2008). A promise to ourselves: A journey through fatherhoodand divorce. New York: St. Martin’s Press.

Barber, B. K. (1996). Parental psychological control: Revisiting a neglected construct. Child Development, 67(6), 3296–3319.

Benedek, E. P., & Schetky, D. H. (1985). Allegations of sexual abuse in child custody and visitation disputes. In E. P. Benedek and D. H. Schetky (Eds.), Emerging issues in child psychiatry and the law (pp. 145–156). New York: Brunner/Mazel.


Benedek, E. P., & Schetky, D. H. (1987). Problems in validating allegations of sexual abuse: Part 1, Factors affecting perception and recall of events. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 26(6), 912– 915.

Bernet, W. (1993). False statements and the differential diagnosis of abuse allegations. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 32(5), 903–910.

Bernet, W. (1995). Children of divorce: A practical guide for parents, attorneys, & therapists. New York: Vantage.

Bernet, W. (1997). Case study, allegations of abuse created in a single interview.Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36(7), 966– 970.

Bernet, W. (1998). The child and adolescent psychiatrist and the law. In J. D. Noshpitz (Ed.), Handbook of child and adolescent psychiatry, Vol. 7 (pp. 438–467). New York: John Wiley & Sons. Bernet, W. (2002). Child custody evaluations. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 11(4), 781–804.


Bernet, W. (2008). Parental alienation disorder and DSM–V. American Journal of Family Therapy, 36(5), 349–366.

Blackstone-Ford, J., & Jupe, S. (2004). Ex-etiquette for parents, good behavior after a divorce or separation. Chicago: Chicago Review Press.

Bond, R. (2007). The lingering debate over the parental alienation syndrome phenomenon. Journal of Child Custody, 4(1–2), 37–54.

Bone, J. M. (2003). The parental alienation syndrome, examining the validity amid controversy. Family Law, Section Commentator, 20(1), 24–27.

Bone, J. M., & Walsh, M. R. (1999). Parental alienation syndrome: How to detect it and what to do about it. Florida Bar Journal, 73(3), 44–47.

Bow, J. N., Gould, J. W., & Flens, J. R. (2009). Examining parental alienation in child custody cases: A survey of mental health and legal professionals. American Journal of Family Therapy, 37(2), 127–145.

Bowen, M. (1966). The use of family theory in clinical practice. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 7, 345–374.

Brody, B. (2006a). The misdiagnosis of PAS. In R. A. Gardner, S. R. Sauber, & D. Lorandos (Eds.), The international handbook of parental alienation syndrome, conceptual, clinical and legal considerations (pp. 209–227). Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.


Campbell, T. W. (1992a). Psychotherapy with children of divorce: The pitfalls of triangulated relationships. Psychotherapy, Theory, Research, Practice, & Training, 29, 646–652.

Campbell, T. W. (1992b). False allegations of sexual abuse and their apparent credibility. American Journal of Forensic Psychology, 10(4), 21.


Campbell, T. W. (1993). Parental conflicts between divorced spouses: Strategies for intervention. Journal of Systemic Therapies, 12(4), 27.


Campbell, T. W. (2005). Why doesn’t parental alienation occur more frequently? The significance of role discrimination. American Journal of Family Therapy, 33(5), 365–377.

Cartwright, G. F. (1993). Expanding the parameters of parental alienation syndrome. American Journal of Family Therapy, 21(3), 205–215.


Cartwright, G. F. (2006). Beyond parental alienation syndrome: Reconciling the alienated child and the lost parent. In R. A. Gardner, S. R. Sauber, & D. Lorandos (Eds.), The international handbook of parental alienation syndrome, conceptual, clinical and legal considerations (pp. 286–291). Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.


Clawar, S. S., & Rivlin, B. V. (1991). Children held hostage: Dealing with programmedand brainwashed children. Chicago, IL: American Bar Association.


Cooke, L. (1995). Parental alienation syndrome: A hidden facet of custody disputes. First Place, Lieff Award, Canadian Bar Association, Ottawa, Ontario.


Darnall, D. (1999). Parental alienation, not in the best interest of the children. North Dakota Law Review, 75, 323.

Darnall, Douglas. (2008). Divorce Casualties: Understanding Parental Alienation (2nd ed). Lanham, MD: National Book Network.  


Drozd, L. M. (2009). Rejection in cases of abuse or alienation in divorcing families. In R. M. Galatzer-Levy, L. Kraus, & J. Galatzer-Levy (Eds.), The scientific basis for child custody decisions. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Drozd, L. M., & Olesen, N.W. (2004). Is it abuse, alienation, &/or estrangement? A decision tree. Journal of Child Custody, 1(3), 65–106.


Dunne, J., & Hedrick, M. (1994). The parental alienation syndrome: An analysis of sixteen selected cases. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 21(3–4), 21–38.

Eastman, A. M., & Moran T. J. (1991). Multiple perspectives: Factors related to differential diagnosis of sex abuse and divorce trauma in children under six. Child & Youth Services, 15(2), 159–176.


Ellis, E. M. (2000). Divorce wars: Interventions with families in conflict. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Ellis, E. M. (2005). Help for the alienated parent. American Journal of Family Therapy,33(5), 415–426.

Ellis, E. M. (2007). A stepwise approach to evaluating children for parental alienation syndrome. Journal of Child Custody, 4(1–2), 55–78.

Ellis, E. M., & Boyan, S. (in press). Intervention strategies for parent coordinators in parental alienation cases. American Journal of Family Therapy.Fidler, B. J., Bala, N., Birnbaum, R., & Kavassal
is, K. (2008a). Understanding child alienation and its impact on families. In B. J. Fidler et al., Challenging issues in child custody assessments, A guide for legal and mental health professionals (pp. 203–229). Toronto, Canada: Thomson Carswell.


Fidler, B. J., Bala, N., Birnbaum, R., & Kavassalis, K. (2008b). Challenging issues in child custody assessments: A guide for legal and mental health professionals. Toronto, Canada: Thomson Carswell.  
Garber, B. D. (1996). Alternatives to parental alienation syndrome: Acknowledging the broader scope of children’s emotional difficulties during parental separation and divorce. New Hampshire Bar Journal, 37(1), 51–54.


Garber, B. D. (2004a). Therapist alienation: Foreseeing and forestalling third-party dynamics undermining psychotherapy with children of conflicted caregivers. Professional Psychology, Research and Practice, 35(4), 357–363.


Garber, B. D. (2004b). Parental alienation in light of attachment theory, consideration of the broader implications for child development, clinical practice, & forensic process. Journal of Child Custody, 1(4), 49–76.

Gardner, R. A. (1982). Family evaluation in child custody litigation. Cresskill, NJ: Creative Therapeutics.

Gardner, R. A. (1985). Recent trends in divorce and custody litigation. Academy Forum, 29(2), 3–7.

Gardner, R. A. (1986). Child custody litigation: A guide for parents and mental health professionals. Cresskill, NJ: Creative Therapeutics.


Gardner, R. A. (1987a). The parental alienation syndrome and the differentiation between fabricated and genuine child sex abuse. Cresskill, NJ: Creative Therapeutics.

Gardner, R. A. (1987b). Child custody. In J. D. Noshpitz (Ed.), Handbook of child and adolescent psychiatry, Vol. 5 (pp. 637–646). New York: Basic Books.


Gardner, R. A. (1989b). Differentiating between bona fide and fabricated allegations of sexual abuse of children. Journal of the American Academy of Matrimonial Lawyers, 5, 1–25.

Gardner, R. A. (1991a). Legal and psychotherapeutic approaches to the three types of parental alienation syndrome families: When psychiatry and law join forces. Court Review, 28(1), 14–21.

Gardner, R. A. (1991b). Sex abuse hysteria: Salem witch trials revisited. Cresskill, NJ: Creative Therapeutics.

Gardner, R. A. (1992a). The parental alienation syndrome, A guide for mental health and legal professionals. Cresskill, NJ: Creative Therapeutics.

Gardner, R. A. (1992b). True and false allegations of child sex abuse. Cresskill, NJ: Creative Therapeutics.

Gardner, R. A. (1994). The detrimental effects on women of the misguided gender egalitarianism of the child-custody resolution guidelines. Academy Forum, 38(1/2), 10–13.

Gardner, R. A. (1998a). Recommendations for dealing with parents who induce a parental alienation syndrome in their children. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 28(3–4), 1–23.

Gardner, R. A. (1998b). The parental alienation syndrome: A guide for mental health and legal professionals, 2nd ed. Cresskill, NJ: Creative Therapeutics.

Gardner, R. A. (1998c). The Burgess decision and the Wallerstein brief. Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 26(3), 425–432.

Gardner, R. A. (1999a). Family therapy of the moderate type of parental alienation syndrome. American Journal of Family Therapy, 27(3), 195–212.

Gardner, R. A. (1999b). Guidelines for assessing parental preference in child-custody disputes. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage 30(1), 1–9.


Gardner, R. A. (1999c). Differentiating between parental alienation syndrome and bona fide abuse-neglect. American Journal of Family Therapy, 27(2), 97–107.


Gardner, R. A. (2001a). Should courts order PAS children to visit/reside with the alienated parent? A follow-up study. American Journal of Forensic Psychology, 19(3), 61–106.

Gardner, R. A. (2001b). Therapeutic interventions for children with parental alienation syndrome. Cresskill, NJ: Creative Therapeutics.

Gardner, R. A. (2001c). Parental alienation syndrome (PAS): Sixteen years later. Academy Forum, 45(1), 10–12.

Gardner, R. A. (2002a). Denial of the parental alienation syndrome also harms women. American Journal of Family Therapy, 30(3), 191–202.

Gardner, R. A. (2002b). Parental alienation syndrome vs. parental alienation: Which diagnosis should evaluators use in child-custody disputes? American Journal of Family Therapy, 30(2), 93–115.
Gardner, R. A. (2002d). Misinformation versus facts about the contributions of Richard A. Gardner, M.D. American Journal of Family Therapy, 30(5), 395– 416.

Gardner, R. A. (2003a). Does DSM-IV have equivalents for the parental alienation syndrome (PAS) diagnosis? American Journal of Family Therapy, 31(1), 1–21.

Gardner, R. A. (2003b). The judiciary’s role in the etiology, symptom development,& treatment of the parental alienation syndrome (PAS). American Journal of Forensic Psychology, 21(1), 39–64.

Gardner, R. A. (2004a). Commentary on Kelly and Johnston’s “The alienated child: A reformulation of parental alienation syndrome.” Family Court Review, 42(4), 611–621.

Gardner, R. A. (2004b). The relationship between the parental alienation syndrome: (PAS) and the false memory syndrome (FMS). American Journal of Family Therapy, 32(2), 79–99.

Gardner, R. A. (2004c). The three levels of parental alienation syndrome alienators: Differential diagnosis and management. American Journal of Forensic Psychiatry, 25(3), 41–76.

Gardner, R. A. (2006a). The parental alienation syndrome and the corruptive power of anger. In R. A. Gardner, S. R. Sauber, & D. Lorandos (Eds.), The international handbook of parental alienation syndrome, conceptual, clinical and legal considerations (pp. 33–48). Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.

Gardner, R. A. (2006b). Future predictions on the fate of PAS children: What hath alienators wrought? In R. A. Gardner, S. R. Sauber, & D. Lorandos (Eds.), The international handbook of parental alienation syndrome, conceptual, clinical and legal considerations (pp. 179–194). Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.

Gardner, R. A., Sauber, S. R., & Lorandos, D. (Eds.). (2006). The international handbook of parental alienation syndrome: Conceptual, clinical and legal considerations. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
Garrity, C. B., & Baris, M. A. (1994). Caught in the middle: Protecting the children of high-conflict divorce. New York: Lexington Books.


Gaulier, B., Margerum, J., Price, J. A., & Windell, J. (2007). Defusing the high-conflict divorce: A treatment guide for working with angry couples. Atascadero, CA: Impact Publishers.

Gordon, R. M. (1998). The Medea complex and the parental alienation syndrome: When mothers damage their daughter’s ability to love a man. In G. H. Fenchel (Eds.), The mother-daughter relationship echoes through time (pp. 207–225). Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson.

Gordon, R. M., Stoffey, R., & Bottinelli, J. (2008). MMPI-2 findings of primitive defenses in alienating parents. American Journal of Family Therapy, 36(3), 211–228.


Gottlieb, D. S. (2006). Parental alienation syndrome: An Israeli perspective, reflections and recommendations. In R. A. Gardner, S. R. Sauber, & D. Lorandos (Eds.), The international handbook of parental alienation syndrome, conceptual, clinical and legal considerations (pp. 90–107). Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.

Haas, T. O. (2004). Child custody determinations in Michigan: Not in the best interests of children or parents. University of Detroit Mercy Law Review, 81, 333.

Hamarman, S., & Bernet, W. (2000). Evaluating and reporting emotional abuse in children: Parent-based, action-based focus aids in clinical decision-making. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39(7), 928– 930.

Jaffe, P., Ashbourne, D., & Mamo, A. (2010).  Early identification and prevention of parent-child alienation: A framework for balancing risks and benefits of intervention.  Family Court Review, 48(1), 136-152.

Jaffe, P. G., Johnston, J. R., Crooks, C. V., & Bala, N. (2008). Custody disputes involving allegations of domestic violence: Toward a differential approach to parenting plans. Family Court Review, 46(3), 500–523.

Jeffries, M. (2009). A family’s heartbreak: A parent’s introduction to parental alienation. Stamford, CT: A Family’s Heartbreak, LLC.

Jenkins, S. (2002). Are children protected in the family court? A perspective from Western Australia. ANZJFT Australian and New Zealand Journal of Family Therapy, 23(3), 145–152.

Johnston, J. R. (1993). Children of divorce who refuse visitation. In C. Depner and J. H. Bray (Eds.), Non–residential parenting, new vistas in family living (pp. 109–135). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Johnston, J. R. (1994). High-conflict divorce. Future Child, 4(1), 165–182.

Johnston, J. R. (2003). Parental alignments and rejection: An empirical study of alienation in children of divorce. Journal of American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 31(2), 158–170.

Johnston, J. R. (2005). Children of divorce who reject a parent and refuse visitation: Recent research and social policy implications for the alienated child. Family Law Quarterly, 38(4), 757–775.

Johnston, J. R., & Campbell, L. E. G. (1999). Impasses of divorce: The dynamics and resolution of family conflict. New York: Free Press.

Johnston, J. R., Campbell, L. E. G., & Mayes, S. S. (1985). Latency children in postseparation and divorce disputes. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 24(5), 563–574.

Johnston, J. R., & Girdner, L. K. (2001). Family abductors: Descriptive profiles and preventive interventions. Juvenile Justice Bulletin, 1, 1–7.

Johnston, J. R., & Kelly, J. B. (2004). Rejoinder to Gardner’s “Commentary on Kelly and Johnston’s ‘The alienated child: A reformulation of parental alienation syndrome.’” Family Court Review, 42(4), 622–628
.
Johnston, J. R., & Kelly, J. B. (2004). Commentary on Walker, Brantley, & Rigsbee’s (2004) “A critical analysis of parental alienation syndrome and its admissibility in the family court.” Journal of Child Custody, 1(4), 77–89.

Johnston, J. R., Kline, M., & Tschann, J. M. (1989). Ongoing postdivorce conflict: Effects on children of joint custody and frequent access. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 59(4), 576–592.

Johnston, J. R., Lee, S., Olesen, N. W., & Walters, M. G. (2005). Allegations and substantiations of abuse in custody-disputing families. Family Court Review, 43(2), 283–294.

Johnston, J. R., Walters, M. G., & Olesen, N. W. (2005). Clinical ratings of parenting capacity and Rorschach protocols of custody-disputing parents: An exploratory study. Journal of Child Custody, 2, 159–178.

Johnston, J. R., Walters, M. G., & Olesen, N. W. (2005). Is it alienating parenting, role reversal or child abuse? A study of children’s rejection of a parent in child custody disputes. Journal of Emotional Abuse, 5(4), 191–218.

Johnston, J. R., Walters, M. G., & Olesen, N. W. (2005c). The psychological functioning of alienated children in custody disputing families: An exploratory study. American Journal of Forensic Psychology, 23(3), 39–64.

Kelly, J. (2010).  Commentary on Family bridges:  Using insights from social science to reconnect parents and alienated children.  Family Court Review, 48(1), 81–90.

Kelly, J. B., & Emery, R. E. (2003). Children’s adjustment following divorce: Risk and resilience perspectives. Family Relations, 52, 352–362.

Kelly, J. B., & Lamb, M. E. (2000). Using child development research to make appropriate custody and access decisions for young children. Family Court Review, 38(3), 297–311.

Kelly, J. B., & Johnston, J. R. (2001). The alienated child: A reformulation of parental alienation syndrome. Family Court Review (Special Issue: Alienated children in divorce), 39(3), 249–266.

Klass, J. L., & Klass, J. V. (2005). Threatened mother syndrome (TMS): A diverging concept of parental alienation syndrome (PAS). American Journal of Family Law, 18(4), 189–191.

Kopetski, L. (1998). Identifying cases of parent alienation syndrome: Part I. Colorado Lawyer, 27(2), 65–68.Kopetski, L. (1998). Identifying cases of parent alienation syndrome: Part II. Colorado Lawyer, 27(3), 61–64.

Kopetski, L. (2006). Commentary: Parental alienation syndrome. In R. A. Gardner, S. R. Sauber, & D. Lorandos (Eds.), The international handbook of parental alienation syndrome, conceptual, clinical and legal considerations (pp. 378–390). Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.

Kopetski, L, Rand, D. C., & Rand, R. (2006). Incidence, gender, & false allegations of child abuse, data on 84 parental alienation syndrome cases. In R. A. Gardner, S. R. Sauber, & D. Lorandos (Eds.), The international handbook of parental alienation syndrome, conceptual, clinical and legal considerations (pp. 65–70). Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.

Kuehnle, K. (1998). Child sexual abuse evaluations: The scientist–practitioner model. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 16(1), 5–20.

Kuehnle, K. (1998b). Ethics and the forensic expert: A case study of child custody involving allegations of child sexual abuse. Ethics & Behavior, 8(1), 1–18.

Kuehnle, K., & Connell, M. (2009). The evaluation of child sexual abuse allegations: A comprehensive guide to assessment and testimony. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Kuehnle, K., Greenberg, L.R., & Gottlieb, M. C. (2004). Incoporating the principles of scientifically based child interviews into family law cases. Journal of Child Custody, 1(1), 97–114.

Levy, A. M. (1982). Disorders of visitation in child custody cases. Journal of Psychiatry and Law, 10(4), 471–489.

Levy, D. (1992). Review of parental alienation syndrome: A guide for mental health and legal professionals. American Journal of Family Therapy, 20(3), 276–277.

Levy, D. L. (2006). The need for public awareness and policy makers to respond to PAS: A neglected form of child abuse. In R. A. Gardner, S. R.. Sauber, & D. Lorandos (Eds.), The international handbook of parental alienation syndrome, conceptual, clinical and legal considerations (pp. 153–162). Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.

Lorandos, D. (2006a). Parental alienation syndrome in American law. In R. A. Gardner, S. R. Sauber, & D. Lorandos (Eds.), The international handbook of parental alienation syndrome, conceptual, clinical and legal considerations (pp. 333–351). Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.

Lowenstein, L. F. (1999b). Parental alienation syndrome (PAS). Justice of the Peace, 163(4), 171–174.
Lowenstein, L. F. (2001). Tackling parental alienation. Justice of the Peace, 165(6), 102.

Lowenstein, L. F. (2002). Problems suffered by children due to the effects of parental alienation syndrome (PAS). Justice of the Peace, 166(24), 464–466.

Lowenstein, L. F. (2003). Tackling parental alienation: A summary. Justice of the Peace, 167(3), 29–30.

Lowenstein, L. F. (2006a). Overturning the programming of a child. Journal of Parental Alienation, 1(5), 1–12.
Lowenstein, L. F. (2006b). Signs of PAS and how to counteract its effects. Journal of Parental Alienation, 2(2), 26–30.

Lowenstein, L. F. (2006c). The psychological effects and treatment of parental alienation syndrome. In R. A. Gardner, S. R. Sauber, & D. Lorandos (Eds.), The international handbook of parental alienation syndrome, conceptual, clinical and legal considerations (pp. 292–301). Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.

Lowenstein, L. F. (2007). Parental alienation: How to understand and address parental alienation resulting from acrimonious divorce or separation. Lyme Regis, Dorset, UK: Russell House Publishing.
Lowenstein, L. F. (2008). Reducing the hostility. Justice of the Peace, 172(20), 322– 324.

Luftman, V. H., Veltkamp, L. J., Clark, J. J., Lannacone, S., & Snooks, H. (2005). Practice guidelines in child custody evaluations for licensed clinical social workers. Clinical Social Work Journal, 33(3), 327–357

Machuca, L. P. (2005). Parental alienation syndrome: Perceptions of parental behaviors and attitudes in divorced vs. non-divorced families. Dissertation, University of Alaska, Anchorage, Alaska.

Maidment, S. (1998). Parental alienation syndrome: A judicial response? Family Law, 28, 264–266.

Major, J. A. (2000). Breakthrough parenting: Moving your family from struggle to cooperation. Los Angeles: Breakthrough Parenting Services.

Major, J. A. (2006). Helping clients deal with parental alienation syndrome. In R. A. Gardner, S. R. Sauber, & D. Lorandos (Eds.), The international handbook of parental alienation syndrome, conceptual, clinical and legal considerations (pp. 276–285). Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.

Mart, E. G. (2007). Issue focused forensic child custody assessment. Sarasota, FL: Professional Resources Press.

Meadow, R. (1993). False allegations of abuse and Munchausen syndrome by proxy. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 68(4), 444.

Meister, R. (2003). Review of Therapeutic interventions for children with parental alienation syndrome. American Journal of Family Therapy, 31(4), 321–324.

Mendelson, Rt. (1998). A family divided: A divorced father’s struggle with the child custody industry. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books.

Mitcham–Smith, M., & Henry, W. J. (2007). High-conflict divorce solutions: Parenting coordination as an innovative co-parenting intervention. Family Journal, 15(4), 368–373.

Moss, D. C. (1988). Teaching kids to hate. ABA Journal, 74, 19–20. Murray, K. (1999). When children refuse to visit parents: Is prison an appropriate remedy? Family Court Review, 37(1), 83–98.

National Interdisciplinary Colloquium on Child Custody Law. (1998). Legal and mental health perspectives on child custody law: A deskbook for judges. Eagan, MN: West Group.

Neustein, A., & Lesher, M. (2009). Evaluating PAS: A critique of Elizabeth Ellis’s “A stepwise approach to evaluating children for PAS.” Journal of Child Custody, 6, 322–325.

Ney, T. (1995). True and false allegations of child sexual abuse: Assessment and case management. New York: Brunner/Mazel Publisher.

Nicholson, E. B., & Bulkley, J., (Eds.). (1988). Sexual abuse allegations in custody and visitation cases. Washington, DC: American Bar Association.

Nurcombe, B., & Partlett, D. F. (1994). Child mental health and the law. New York: Free Press.
Palmer, N. R. (1988). Legal recognition of the parental alienation syndrome. American Journal of Family Therapy, 16(4), 361–363.


Pearl, P. S. (1994). Emotional abuse. In J. A. Monteleone & A. E. Brodeur (Eds.), Child maltreatment, A clinical guide and reference (pp. 259–282). St. Louis, MO: G. W. Medical Publishing.

Peterson, J. L., & Zill, N. (1986). Marital disruption, parent-child relationships, & behavior problems in children. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 48(2), 295–307.

Pett, M. A., Wampold, B. E., Turner, C. W., & Vaughan-Cole, B. (1999). Paths of influence of divorce on preschool children’s psychosocial adjustment. Journal of Family Psychology, 13(2), 145–164.

Pickett, C. L., & Brewer, M. B. (2005). The role of exclusion in maintaining ingroup inclusion. In D. Abrams, M. A. Hogg, & J. M. Marques (Eds.), The social psychology of inclusion and exclusion (p. 89–112). New York: Psychology Press.

Pollack, D., & Mason, S. (2004). In the best interest of the child. Family Court Review, 42(1), 74–84.

Price, J. L., & Pioske, K. S. (1994). Parental alienation syndrome: A developmental analysis of a vulnerable population. Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services, 32(11), 9–12.

Racusin, R., Copans, S. A., & Mills, P. (1994). Characteristics of families of children who refuse post-divorce visits. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 50, 792–801.

Rand, D. C. (1997a). The spectrum of parental alienation syndrome: Part I. American Journal of Forensic Psychology, 15(3), 23–52.

Rand, D. C. (1997b). The spectrum of parental alienation syndrome: Part II. American Journal of Forensic Psychology, 15(4), 39–92.

Rand, D. C. (in press). The spectrum of parental alienation syndrome: Part IV, Critics of parental alienation syndrome and the politics of science: Part I. American Journal of Family Therapy.

Rand, D. C., & Rand, R., & Kopetski, L. (2005). The spectrum of parental alienation syndrome: Part III: The Kopetski follow-up study. American Journal of Forensic Psychology, 23(1), 15–43.

Reay, K. M. (2007). Psychological distress among adult children of divorce who perceive experiencing parental alienation syndrome in earlier years. Dissertation, Capella University, Minneapolis, Minnesota.
Reich, W. (1949). Character analysis (3rd ed.). New York: Orgone Institute Press.

Reischer, H. (1999). Review of The parental alienation syndrome: A guide for mental health and legal professionals. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 27(3), 504–506.

Reppucci, N. D. (1984). The wisdom of Solomon: Issues in child custody determinations. In N. D. Reppucci et al. (Eds.), Children, mental health, & the law. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Richardson, P. (2006). A kidnapped mind: A mother’s heartbreaking memoir of parental alienation. Toronto, Canada: Dundurm.

Rohrbaugh, J. B. (2008). A comprehensive guide to child custody evaluations, mental health and legal perspectives. New York: Springer Science + Business Media.

Roseby, V., & Johnston, J. R. (1995). Clinical interventions with latency-age children of high conflict and violence. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 65(1), 48–59.

Roseby, V., & Johnston, J. R. (1998). Children of Armageddon: Common developmental threats in high-conflict divorcing families. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 7(2), 295–309.

Ross, L., Lepper, M. R., & Hubbard, M. (1975). Perseverance in self-perception and social perception: Biased attribution processes in the debriefing paradigm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32(5), 880–892.

Rueda, C. A. (2003). Parental alienation syndrome: An inter-rater reliability study. Dissertation, Walden University.

Rueda, C. A. (2004). An inter-rater reliability study of parental alienation syndrome. American Journal of Family Therapy, 32(5), 391–403.

Schacht, T. E. (1999). Prevention strategies to protect professionals and families involved in high-conflict divorce. University of Arkansas at Little Rock Law Review, 22, 565–581.

Schreier, H. A. (1996). Repeated false allegations of sexual abuse presenting to sheriffs: When is it munchausen by proxy? Child Abuse & Neglect, 20(10), 985– 991.

Schultz, G. C. (2007). Unlawful flight: A parental kidnapping. New York: Wind Blown Books.
Schutz, B. M., Dixon, E. B., Lindberger, J. C., & Ruther, N. J.,(1989). Solomon’s sword: A practical guide to conducting child custody evaluations. San Francisco: Jossey- Bass Publishers.  

Siegel, J. C. (1996). Traditional MMPI-2 validity indicators and initial presentation in custody evaluations. American Journal of Forensic Psychology, 14(3), 55–64.

Siegel, J. C., & Langford, J. S. (1998). MMPI-2 validity scales and suspected parental alienation syndrome. American Journal of Forensic Psychology, 16(4), 5–14.

Simons, V., Grossman, L. S., & Weiner, B. J. (1990). A study of families in high-conflict custody disputes: Effects of psychiatric evaluation. Bulletin of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 18(1), 85–97.

Sinha, A. K., Singh, A. P., & Kumari, A. (1988). Parent evaluation as a function of sex and alienation. Indian Journal of Current Psychological Research, 3(1), 29–33.

Stahl, P. M. (1999b). Personality traits of parents and developmental needs of children in high-conflict families. Academy of Certified Family Law, Specialists Newsletter, Winter 1999(3), 8–16.

Stahl, P. M. (1999c). Alienation and alignment of children. California Psychologist, 32(3), 23–29.

Stahl, P. M. (2003). Understanding and evaluating alienation in high-conflict custody cases. Wisconsin Journal of Family Law, 24(1), 20–26.

Stahl, P. M. (2007). Parenting after divorce: resolving conflicts, and meeting your children’s needs (2nd ed.). Atascadero, CA: Impact Publishers.

Stoltz, J. M., & Key, T. (2002). Resistance to visitation: Rethinking parental and child alienation. Family Court Review, 40(2), 220–231.

Stoner-Moskowitz, J. (1998). The Effect of parental alienation syndrome and interparental conflict on the self–concept of children of divorce. Dissertation, Miami Institute of Psychology of the Caribbean Center for Advanced Studies, Miami, Florida.

Strauss, A. C., Strauss, A. L., & Corbin, J. (2007). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.


Sullivan, M., & Kelly, J. B. (2001). Legal and psychological management of cases with an alienated child. Family Court Review, 39(3), 299–315.

Summers, C. C., & Summers, D. M. (2006). Parentectomy in the crossfire. American Journal of Family Therapy, 34(3), 243–261.

Summers, D. M., & Summers, C. C. (2006). Unadulterated arrogance: Autopsy of the narcissistic parental alienator. American Journal of Family Therapy, 34(5), 399–428.

Turkat, I. D. (1994). Child visitation interference in divorce. Clinical Psychology Review, 14(8), 737–742.

Turkat, I. D. (1995). Divorce related malicious mother syndrome. Journal of Family Violence, 10(3), 253–264.

Turkat, I. D. (2000). Custody battle burnout. American Journal of Family Therapy, 28(3), 201–215.

Turkat, I. D. (2002). Parental alienation syndrome: A review of critical issues. Journal of the American Academy of Matrimonial Lawyers, 18, 131–176.

Turkat, I. D. (2005). False allegations of parental alienation. American Journal of Family Law, 19, 1–15.

ValueOptions. (2006). V-Codes, Relational problems. In ValueOptions Provider Handbook. Available at: http://www.valueoptions.com/providers/ Handbook.htm

Vassiliou, D. (2005). The impact of the legal system on parental alienation syndrome. Dissertation, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec.

Vassiliou, D., & Cartwright, G.F. (2001). The lost parents’ perspective on parental alienation syndrome. American Journal of Family Therapy, 29(3), 181– 191.

Waldron, K. H., & Joanis, D. E. (1996). Understanding and collaboratively treating parental alienation syndrome. American Journal of Family Law, 10(3), 121–133.

Walker, A. J. (2006). The extreme consequence of parental alienation syndrome: The Richard Lohstroh case of a child driven to kill his father: Will courts move toward allowing children to use parental alienation syndrome as a defense to the crime of murder of their own parent? Women’s Rights Law Reporter, 27(3), 153–164.

Walker, L. E. A., Brantley, K. L., & Rigsbee, J. A. (2004a). A critical analysis of parental alienation syndrome and its admissibility in the family court. Journal of Child Custody, 1(2), 47–74.

Walker, L. E. A., Brantley, K. L., & Rigsbee, J. A. (2004b). Response to Johnston and Kelly critique of PAS article. Journal of Child Custody, 1(4), 91–97.

Wallerstein, J. S., & Blakeslee, S. (1989). Second chances: Men, women, & children a decade after divorce. New York: Ticknor & Fields.

Wallerstein, J. S., & Blakeslee, S. (2003). What about the kids? Raising your children before, during, & after divorce. New York: Hyperion.

Wallerstein, J. S., & Lewis, J. M. (1998). The long-term impact of divorce on children: A first report from a 25-year study. Family & Conciliation Courts Review, 36, 368–383.

Wallerstein, J. S., Lewis, J. M., & Blakeslee, S. (2000). The unexpected legacy of divorce: The 25 year landmark study. New York: Hyperion.

Wallerstein, J. S., & Kelly, J. B. (1976). The effects of parental divorce: Experiences of the child in later latency. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 46, 256–269.

Wallerstein, J. S., & Kelly, J. B. (1980). Surviving the breakup. New York: Basic Books.

Walsh, M. R., & Bone, J. M. (1997). Parental alienation syndrome: An age–old custody problem. Florida Bar Journal, 71(6), 93–96.

Wamboldt, M. Z., Wamboldt, F. S., Gavin, L., & McTaggart, S. (2001). A parent-child relationship scale derived from the child and adolescent psychiatric assessment (CAPA). Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40(8), 945–953

Ward, P., & Harvey, J. C. (1993). Family wars: The alienation of children. New Hampshire Bar Journal, 34(1), 30–40.

Warshak, R. A. (1999). Psychological syndromes: Parental alienation syndrome. In R. Orsinger (Eds.), Expert Witness Manual (pp. 3–27). Austin, TX: State Bar of Texas.

Warshak, R. A. (2000). Remarriage as a trigger of parental alienation syndrome. American Journal of Family Therapy, 28(3), 229–241.

Warshak, R. A. (2001). Divorce poison: Protecting the parent-child bond from a vindictive ex. New York: HarperCollins.

Warshak, R. A. (2001). Current controversies regarding parental alienation syndrome. American Journal of Forensic Psychology, 19(3), 29–59.

Warshak, R. A. (2002). Misdiagnosis of parental alienation syndrome. American Journal of Forensic Psychology, 20(2), 31–52.

Warshak, R. A. (2003). Bringing sense to parental alienation: A look at the disputes and the evidence. Family Law Quarterly, 37(2), 273–301.

Warshak, R. A. (2003). Payoffs and pitfalls of listening to children. Family Relations, 52(4), 373–384.

Warshak, R. A. (2006). Social science and parental alienation: Examining the disputes and the evidence. In R. A. Gardner, S. R. Sauber, & D. Lorandos (Eds.), The international handbook of parental alienation syndrome, conceptual, clinical and legal considerations (pp. 352–371). Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.

Warshak, R. A. (2010). Family Bridges: Using insights from social science to reconnect parents and alienated children. Family Court Review, 48(1), 48–80.

Warshak, R. A. (2010). Alienating audiences from innovaton: The perils of polemics, ideology, & innuendo. Family Court Review, 48(1), 153–163.

Warshak, R. A. (2010). Divorce poison: How to protect your family from badmouthing and brainwashing. New York: HarperPaperbacks.

Warshak, R. A., & Otis, M. R. (2010). Helping alienated children with family bridges: Practice, research, & the pursuit of “humbition.” Family Court Review, 48(1), 91–97.

Watson, A. S. (1969). The children of Armageddon: Problems of custody following divorce. Syracuse Law Review, 21, 55–86.

Weigel, D. J., & Donovan, K. A. (2006). Parental alienation syndrome, diagnostic and triadic perspectives. Family Journal, 14(3), 274–282

Weintraub, P., & Hillman, T. (2005). Complete idiot’s guide to surviving divorce (3rd ed.). New York: Penguin Group.

Weir, K. (2006). Clinical advice to courts on children’s contact with their parents following parental separation. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 11(1), 40– 46.

Westman, J. C., Cline, D. W., Swift, W. J., & Kramer, D. A. (1970). Role of child psychiatry in divorce. Archives of General Psychiatry, 23, 416–420.

Willbourne, C., & Cull, L. (1997). The emerging problem of parental alienation. Family Law, 27, 807–808.

Williams, R. J. (2001). Should judges close the gate on PAS and PA? Family Court Review (Special Issue: Alienated children in divorce), 39(3), 267–281.

Williams, S. (2006). Book review of A handbook of divorce and custody, forensic, developmental, & clinical perspectives. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34(1), 136.

Wolchik, S. A., & Karoly, P. (Eds.). (1985). Children of divorce: Empirical perspective on adjustment. Dalton, OH: Gardner Press.

Wood, C. L. (1994). The parental alienation syndrome, A dangerous aura of reliability. Loyola of Los Angeles Law Review, 27(4), 1367–1415.


Worenklein, A. (1992). Custody litigation and parental alienation. International Journal of Psychology, 27(3–4), 226.  

Another Year of Parental Alienation? Dr. Gardner's Observations: The Causal Agent and 25 Years of Blame

Twenty five years ago, Dr. Gardner introduced the term Parental Alienation Syndrome (PAS). Unfortunately, his contributions and his work have been tainted.  One anecdote is that his findings were only self-published.  Some groups dismiss that Dr. Gardner authored 130 peer-reviewed articles, 19 of his articles related specifically to PAS (Rand, 2011).  Critics assert  the phenomenon has been “debunked.” The critics mistakenly divert to references by advocacy groups, not peer-reviewed studies. They also commonly point out that the American Psychological Association (APA) lacks an “official statement.” A lack of an official statement does not indicate parental alienation ceases to exist.  Even so, the detractors overlook the fact that Dr. Gardner’s work is listed, under “pertinent literature” in the APA’s Guidelines for Child Custody Evaluators.  Making matters worse, his critics do not stop at misrepresenting his contributions to the scientific community; they go further, making PAS synonymous with false allegations of abuse (Rand, 2011). The existence of alienation is not equivalent to a denial of child abuse or intimate partner violence (Fidler & Bala, 2010).

Slanderous opinions about Dr. Gardner are not worth reading. Still,  many groups go out of their way, in the name of so-called women’s advocates, to vilify his work. It is disheartening that facts remain discarded. When facts are ignored, alienated parents and children suffer. There are many views offered, each wearing a unique theoretical lens. Different lens will inevitably provide disparaging observations—some become blinded; others see the light.  Blinded perspectives see parental alienation as a normal by-product of divorce.  Or, others propose that a child “outgrows” parental alienation. The reality is some parents have been alienated for five, ten, or more years. And, as many alienated parents know, many relationships become permanently severed.

 Given that parental alienation is not a new phenomenon, parents remain perplexed.  They wonder why complaints are dismissed.  They waste an inordinate amount of time speculating where they went wrong. Others spend an inordinate amount of money trying to force an ex-spouse to follow ignored court orders. There are many reasons for the delays, such as what to call the problem.  Nevertheless, the biggest obstacle, according to the literature, is that many do not accept Gardner’s position. Dr. Gardner (2001) posited that  the programming parent is primarily responsible for the creation of the disorder in the child, and if the programming did not take place, the disorder would not have arisen. Dr. Gardner found, through observation, that the causal agent is the alienating parent. Some find this view is “too simplistic.”  Consequently, some search for multiple factors wearing a systemic lens; they reason that one parent’s individual mean-spirited antics is not enough to cause an unholy alignment. It appears that a systemic perspective, erroneously blames target parents.

A common sense and less complicated view is offered by Dr. Warshak, in his article, Bringing Sense to Parental Alienation: A Look at the Disputes and Evidence (2003). PAS is described as when a child manifests an unreasonable campaign of denigration against, or rejection of one parent, due to the influence of the other parent, in conjunction with the child’s contributions. The campaign is not an occasional episode, but is instead persistent. Still, many dismiss that children are susceptible to suggestibility. Some believe that a child would not turn against a parent, unless the parent had done something to warrant the rejection. People who deny the existence of unjustified alienation believe that children reject a parent only if that parent has abused, neglected, or mistreated them, or demonstrated excessively poor parenting skills (Warshak, 2010). Denying unjustified alienation is punitive. “The position that irrational alienation does not exist essentially means that all rejected parents deserve what they get” (Warshak, 2003).

  Clearly no fair-minded person blames such hatred on the targets themselves (Warshak). Unfortunately, not everyone is fair-minded. Target parents are blamed, shamed, and depicted as high-conflict bickering parents.  Rejected parents endure multiple failed attempts  trying to work with an ex-spouse that is not reasonable. Warshak (2003) clarifies that some believe the contributions of the favored parent are over-emphasized while others take the position that multiple contributing factors are under-emphasized. This does not mean rejected parents are off the hook, but they are not primarily responsible.

According to Fidler and Bala (2010) rejected parents in an effort to cope may withdrawal or react passively. And, as most alienated parents have not been prepared to deal with the extreme behaviors manifested by alienated children, they may not  know how to respond. Clearly, understanding proper responses will aid rejected parents.  Though, as Dr. Gardner originally noted, if the programming by the alienating parent did not occur in the first place, the disorder would not have arisen (2001). One can infer that a rejected parent’s role, is not one of primary responsibility; it is not knowing how to respond. Without a doubt, proper responses may offset alienation, but it is beneficial to understand exactly what alienated parents have to deal with. Sadly, some rejected parents do not get the chance to counterbalance alienation because their ex-spouse refuses to adhere to the parenting plan.

Studies indicate that rejected parents may be working with an ex-spouse who is malicious and vindictive.  They may feel above the law, be deliberate in their actions, or have a mental illness (Fidler & Bala, 2010). Another example of what alienated parents are up against, is depicted by Jaffe, Ashbourne and Mamo, “Although it may seem heavy handed, some parents will only listen to input from the court.” The reality? Alienating parents do not listen to the court.  Jaffee et al. provided an accurate description when they highlighted, “A minority of parents who suffer from personality and mental disorders may ignore the court and spend their waking hours finding ways to exhaust the other parent emotionally and financially” (2010).  Baker & Darnall (2006) also found support for the alienating parent’s defiance.  In regards to parenting time, the most frequently cited response was that alienating parents did not adhere to court orders. In their study, when the rejected parent would go to pick the child up, neither the favored parent, nor the child would be home. Obviously, when parents do not get to see their children, offsetting alienating tactics are futile.

 
As Dr. Gardner noted, “Denying reality is obviously a maladaptive way of dealing with a situation.” The reality? Many are  in denial.  Studies indicate that alienating parents are not going to change.  Alienating parents continue to defy court orders, participate in badmouthing, and intentionally turn an innocent child against the other parent. Consequently, it does not seem fair to blame rejected parents.  Dr. Kelly also offered a similar view to Dr. Gardner, “It is the embattled parent, often the one who opposes the divorce in the first place, who initiates and fuels the alignment (Kelly, 2000).  Jaffe et al.(2010) suggests addressing the conflict between the parents and that an understanding of the underlying cause is vital. To address the conflict, it seems logical that one parent is out right furious because the other will not follow court orders. To address the underlying cause requires the acknowledgment that one of the parents may not have desired the divorce. Or, another underlying cause is a truth of the human condition: some folks are simply mean.


Common sense tells us, if one does not initiate and fuel the alignment, rejected parents would not have to learn proper responses to unwarranted rejection and hatred. For the sake of our children, I pray another 25 years will not pass. Waiting another 25 years believing parental alienation is an abuse excuse, tactic, or cover up will result in unwarranted estrangement.  When the favored parent’s behavior contributes significantly to the children’s negative attitudes, leading authorities in the field label this emotional abuse. Our society’s standard of care regarding abused children is to prioritize protecting them from further abuse (Warshak, 2010).  Our society’s standard of care also, as the norm, does not blame victims.  Without a doubt, not all alienated parents will respond properly at all times. Yet, not all parents have the chance to respond. They try, only to find doors are slammed, letters are returned, or no one is at home.  Thankfully, 2010 provided a lot of helpful tools for rejected parents. It is vital we keep in mind that a less than perfect response to unwarranted rejection, does not make one a poor parent.